Entrepreneurship And Business Skills The WritePass Journal

Enterprise And Business Skills Question 1 Enterprise And Business Skills ). The greatest deterrent that I have needed to confront is the negative qualities that I forces. In any case, after some time I have arrived at the resolution that what one needs on one side, they make up for it on the other. I am for example a poor organizer. The system of contacts that I began with was extremely tight and since I am not all that great at associating with individuals, the circumstance didn't beat that. What I needed system aptitudes, I compensated for in responsibility and assurance. The significant thing is to coordinate the quality that makes up for your shortcoming and apply it (Hauser, 2012). In spite of the fact that, I was unable to associate with individuals effectively, I could depend on myself to take care of business. The inclination that I was a ‘outsider’ diminished my dependence on different people’s help and I inundated myself in the strategic I progressed in the direction of. Disappointment was not a frustration yet rather a chanc e to learn and stay away from a comparable error later on. Because of my dedication and assurance, imminent accomplices looked for me and my system developed not on the grounds that I was acceptable at associating with others but since of my drive to succeed that spoke to them. It is essential to discover one’s shortcomings and qualities followed by systems to turn the shortcomings around. Each business is a whole framework that contains various errands which can't be practiced by a solitary individual regardless of how solid that individual is. Accordingly, the best procedure is to concentrate an individual’s vitality on those zones that they are solid in this way making up for the shortcomings (Collins and Lazier, 1995). I applied the suggested procedure by Collins and Lazier in my shortcoming with respect to poor relational abilities by boosting on my capacity to think about the master plan. In spite of the fact that I was unable to convince individuals to help my perspectives, thoughts and business in general, I could see the examples and connections in the earth I exchanged. These examples and connections made me an incredible indicator of market just as contender moves. Thus, I didn't need to convince anybody to follow my lead, embrace my thoughts, or take part in exchanges with me on the grounds that the insights chatted for my sake. The predictable positive outcomes made others to pick up trust in me. The other attribute that impeded me was my solid activity direction that made me here and there want to act preceding complete examination. There are a few events that my endeavors fizzled coming about because of my prompt activities that depended on deficient data. These endeavors bombed yet I didn't abandon them and rather continued difficult until they succeeded. My solid activity direction was my shortcoming yet the inspiration to exceed expectations is the quality that evaded my defeat. Each time I went into an endeavor since I wanted to act, my objective and result direction pushed me until the objective was accomplished. I defeated my shortcomings through the qualities that made up for what I needed. I would prescribe such a way to deal with each person who wants to survive or transform their shortcomings into qualities. Question 3 I would pick the job of either a coordinator or a mediator. Regularly the gathering is part over which is the privilege and an inappropriate way to deal with an action or assignment (Adeak, 2010). Each person in the gathering assumes that their thought, recommendation, or plan is the right one. Be that as it may, the best arrangement, technique, and association originate from broad readiness, evaluation, and thought. I organize these three components since I don't care to embrace an assignment while ill-equipped and I set my focus on accomplishing the objective in this way the methodology utilized, the association picked and the technique detailed all must be fixated on the objective. Since this is a gathering movement, accomplishing the objective isn't just subject to my exertion however on each gathering member’s exertion. It is in this manner my duty to sort out the group and guarantee that the arrangement that I have planned to accomplish the objective is incorporated into the entire group. Group association is a basic segment of long haul accomplishment of any business in this manner guaranteeing the team’s methodology and plans are figured and each colleague is appointed a job that they will perform successfully would ensure positive outcomes (Collins and Lazier, 1995). A specific event that I assumed this job was in an examination venture on publicizing where I partitioned the gathering into sub-gatherings with the goal that each sub-gathering could look into on a sub-subject which would then be trailed by combination of all the sub-points. The job of a mediator would likewise be a proper job for me since I am unprejudiced and keep up a receptive outlook consistently. Through such a methodology I accept the interests of each gathering part would be tended to thusly guaranteeing that no part is disappointed. One obstacle that regularly emerges in bunch exercises is the portion of assets and goals of inside differences (Adeak, 2010). I have confidence in reasonable treatment and in this manner would guarantee the assets are composed and apportioned decently. This progression would likewise help lessen differences in the gathering. This quality means that the arbitrator is a proper job for me. The job that I would least play in a gathering is that of a pundit. This is significantly in light of the fact that I decide to take a gander at things decidedly while the pundit looks for the blemish so as to uncover it. A group should be spurred so as to perform well yet analysis frequently hoses the inspiration of the group (Adeak, 2010). This job is accordingly not fitting for me by any stretch of the imagination. References Brockhaus, R. H. (1982), The Psychology of the Entrepreneur. In Encyclopedia of Entrepreneurship , altered by Calvin A. Kent, Donald L. Sexton, and Karl H. Vesper, Prentice Hall, New Jersey. Collins, J. C. furthermore, Lazier, W. C. (1995), Beyond Entrepreneurship: Turning Your Business into an Enduring Great Company, Prentice Hall, New Jersey. Caird, S. (1990), What does it intend to be Enterprising? English Journal of Management, vol. 1, Issue 3, pp. 37â€145. Gunther, M., R. furthermore, MacMillan, I. (2000), The Entrepreneurial Mindset, Harvard Business School Press, Boston. Hauser, A. (2012), How to Overcome Business Weaknesses, Resources for business visionaries, saw May 2, 2012, gaebler.com/Small-Business-Administration-SBA-Advice.htm What is a Team Role Structure? Adeak. 2010, saw May 2, 2012, adeak.com/2010/02/what-is-a-group job structure/

A Streetcar Named Desire Scene Analysis free essay sample

Stella attempts to disclose to Balance her relationship with Stanley toward the start of scene 4 and notices that she was Colors of excited by his savagery. I think by this she implies that she is very taken in by Stanley show of annalistic conduct since it is so unique in relation to the sort of condition in which she was raised in. I accept that she endures all of Stanley conduct in light of the fact that for her it appears to be one of a kind as she could never have been allowed to act in the manner that Stanley does when she was a child.In this circumstance, contrary energies truly appear to pull in each other which is exactly why Stella is pulled in to Stanley. 2) The scene bearings toward the start of scene 4 unmistakably show the reason for Stella and Stanley relationship: SEX. Sex with Stanley has a practically enchanted impact on Stella. It appears that Stella Is very cheerful In her own existence once fulfilling her craving. We will compose a custom article test on A Streetcar Named Desire Scene Analysis or on the other hand any comparative point explicitly for you Don't WasteYour Time Recruit WRITER Just 13.90/page Her face Is depicted as peaceful, and her eyes and lips have that nearly anarchized quietness that Is In the essences of Eastern Idols. Slows down remark that there are things that occur between a man and a lady in the darkest kind of make everything else seem;unimportant, additionally stresses her simply physical relationship with Stanley. 3) Balance makes reference to her and Stalls life in Belle Revere and reveals to Stella that she cannot have overlooked that a lot of our raising. Clearly Balance accepts that Stanley and Stalls current life is a significant complexity to what she and Stella ought to be utilized to.She stands out Stanley from the refined men whom the two of them used to date and inquires as to whether she thinks there Is any piece of a man of honor In his inclination. Clearly Stella cannot answer In the positive due to Stanley late show f annalistic conduct. Parity additionally makes reference to the spot In where Stella lives; she considers the road vehicle that brought her there a clatter trap road vehicle that blasts through the Quarter, up one old tight street.It is evident that the universe o f Belle Revere and the world in which Stella lives currently is incredibly extraordinary as a result of the distinction in men, their conduct and even the spot which appears to be sub-par when contrasted and Belle Revere. 4) I think the sound of the train is there when he enters since it keeps the ladies from hearing that Stanley has entered. Parity is probably not going to have spoken so evidently about Stanley to Stella in the event that she had realized he was there.The stage headings even strengthen this; they express that Stanley enters under front of the trains clamor. Stanley doesnt go Into the room quickly provided that he did then Stella and Balance would realize that he was there and Stanley Is most likely Interested In Blanches perspective on him and needs to tune in. Also, when he smiles through the shades at Balance, I accept that he is attempting to pass on (non-verbally) to Balance that he realizes that she detests him and that he repeats her emotions entirely.Or it could be conceivable that he knows things about Balance and is trusting that the helpful second will uncover them to Stella. 6) I imagine that the music of the blue piano communicates the soul of life in the city. It appears to speak to the dispositions in the play. The music is first heard in scene 1, and is rehashed at whatever point Balance recollects her dead spouse or at whatever point there is a noteworthy point in a scene. I think it is noteworthy in scene 4 since Stanley discovers precisely what Balance considers him and he understands that his sentiments of disdain towards her are obviously Justified.

Blood Alcohol Content and the Legal Drinking Limit

Blood Alcohol Content and the Legal Drinking Limit September 08, 2019 Getty Images More in Addiction Alcohol Use Binge Drinking Withdrawal and Relapse Children of Alcoholics Drunk Driving Addictive Behaviors Drug Use Nicotine Use Coping and Recovery Blood alcohol content (BAC) is a measure of the amount of alcohol circulating in your bloodstream. It is expressed in terms of weight (milligrams) per unit of volume (milliliters) and is usually shown as a percentage. Blood alcohol content is used for  legal and medical purposes  to indicate a persons level of intoxication.  In 49 of 50 states  and the District of Columbia, the legal limit for driving under the influence of alcohol is 0.08. In Utah, the legal BAC limit is 0.05.?? Commercial drivers have a limit of 0.04.?? Any detectable blood alcohol content is a violation of persons under the age of 21. Blood Alcohol Content Blood alcohol content is  the amount of alcohol present in a volume of blood equal to 100 milliliters  (ml) or its equivalent of 1 deciliter (dl). For example: 80 mg  is 0.08 grams.0.08 grams of alcohol in 100 ml is  0.08 percentThis can also be expressed as 80 mg/dl or a BAC of 0.08 In the United States, a blood-alcohol content of 0.1 (0.1 percent  or one-tenth of one percent) means that there are 0.10 grams of alcohol for every deciliter of blood in the persons body at the time of the test. Synonyms for BAC include blood alcohol level, blood alcohol concentration, and blood ethanol concentration Levels of BAC and Impairment When alcohol is consumed and absorbed into the bloodstream, it travels directly to the brain, affecting many cognitive functions and the ability to perform physical tasks. Driving skills can be impaired long before someone reaches the legal limit, but at 0.08 the risk of having a vehicle crash increases dramatically.?? The National Highway Traffic Safety Administration lists these effects on driving at different blood alcohol content levels:?? 0.02 BAC: You are likely to feel relaxed and have some loss of judgment. You arent able to quickly track the movements of other vehicles, pedestrians, or animals. You lose some of your abilities to do two things at once, so you are more likely to be distracted.0.05 BAC: You  begin to exhibit loss of small-muscle control such as being able to focus your eyes, and you can have lowered alertness. You have even worse ability to track moving objects. Your ability to steer is degraded. If an emergency situation develops, such as needing to brake quickly or maneuver around an unexpected blockage, you are likely to have a poorer response. As a result, a  2018 report  from the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine calls for the lowering the BAC limit for driving to 0.05 percent.0.08 BAC: At the legal level of 0.08, you will usually exhibit poor muscle coordination, loss of balance, slower reaction time, slurred speech, loss of acuity in vision and hearing, difficulty in de tecting danger, and impaired judgment, self-control, reasoning, and memory. When driving, you have difficulties in speed control and in recognizing and reacting to signals and emergency situations. All of these impairments result in an increased risk of injuries in general, and particularly those related to the operation of a motor vehicle.0.10 BAC: At this level, you will have further deterioration of your abilities. It will be hard to maintain lane position and to brake when needed.0.15 BAC: You will have poor muscle control and ability to balance. You are likely to vomit. You will have significant problems in controlling your vehicle and paying attention to your driving and what is happening around you. Reaching the BAC Limit Many factors determine your blood alcohol content and the level of impairment you may be experiencing. On an individual level, there is variance due to your weight, body fat percentage, hydration, digestion, and how alcohol affects your body chemistry.?? The alcohol content of the drinks you have consumed, the spacing of the drinks, and the amount of time that has passed since consuming the drinks influence your BAC. Use of medications and other drugs can affect how  much impairment alcohol produces.??  In addition, studies published in 2015 have shown people are not good at estimating their BAC or level of impairment, leading to making poor decisions.?? There are many simple weight/gender charts that estimate the number of drinks and the blood alcohol content in one hour. For example,  a  120-pound woman can reach a 0.08 BAC level after only two drinks and a 180-pound man can be at 0.08 after four drinks. A drink is either one shot of liquor, a five-ounce glass of wine, or one beer. These estimates should always be used with caution because of the variation in measures and alcoholic content of drinks within different classes of alcohol. For example, some craft beers have twice the alcohol as the typical can of beer, and you may be drinking a full pint (16 ounces) rather than the 12 ounces found in a can. A Word From Verywell Enforcing the legal blood alcohol content limit is important for public safety, but you must use caution anytime you consume alcohol and then drive. You will have some impairment from the first drink and it is always best to avoid driving after you have taken a drink.

Wine Bar-Business Plan - 1062 Words

The Barrel Room Introduction of Concept Wine is fast becoming an essential accessory for the ‘noveou-riche’ and upwardly mobile urban population of modern India. The astounding 25% growth rate of the wine sales and over 10 million liters of wine production In India bears testimony to the fact that wine consumption as an industry is emerging as a lucrative business opportunity. Currently, only places that cater to the wine appetite of the populace are select restaurants, pubs and nightclubs. A niche for a place exclusively for wines exists and that is yet to be filled for a high-volume, upscale, quality-driven chain of wine bars. The Barrel Room would be the first wine bar chain in the industry offering a high quality product and a†¦show more content†¦The Barrel Room would start its operations from one of these cities and would gradually expand to other parts of the country. (c) A dynamic website for online sales and promotion would give a definitive competitive edge over the other players. Competitors: Our direct competitors are bars and lounges that serve wines along with other Liquor, also the select restaurants and night clubs which offer wines as a supplementary product to their other offerings. Goals and Objectives We aspire to become the wine bar of choice for the community, by providing a higher quality experience than any competitor .We intend to create a wine bar chain that quickly achieves profitability and sustain an attractive rate of return (20% or more annually) for our investors with a starting capital of $250,000. Objectives: (a) Make ‘The Barrel Room’ the No. 1 destination for wine drinking in the country starting with either Mumbai or Delhi. (b) Achieve sales of $300,000 in 1st year. (c) Achieve a 15% net profit margin in the first year and 20 % by third year. The break-even will be achieved in 3 years. (d) Create a firm concept in the industry and begin expanding to other metros within 1 year. Management Team Currently, the team is headed by Major Naveen Khare, a HR professional with 10 years of experience in the Indian army behind him. Aiding him in the venture are his two partners Ms. Deepthi Menon, a marketingShow MoreRelatedKudler Fine Foods: SWOT Analysis986 Words   |  4 PagesChina The CEO of Kudler Fine Foods, Kathy Kudler has always kept a keen watch to expand her business to new locations. Kathy along with her team is looking forward to the product launch of their fine wine selection in China. Kathy is optimistic about her project launch in Shanghai, China and hopes that the product will do just as well as it has been doing in places where the company has already established it. 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Executive Summary†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.........†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦... 3 2.1 Name of Company†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 3 2.2 Background of company†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 3 Read MoreTrenton, Jersey, Nj Nightlife : Best Restaurants Bars992 Words   |  4 PagesTop Rated Trenton, NJ Nightlife: Best Restaurants Bars Meta Description: Trenton, New Jersey has great restaurants, bars, and other nightlife to choose from. Meta Keywords: Trenton bars, Trenton restaurants, Restaurants in Trenton, Bars in Trenton Trenton, New Jersey Knows How to Show Locals and Tourists a Good Time Trenton, New Jersey may not be the first place you think of when you think nightlife capital of the East Coast. 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Male Vs Female Playwrights Of The 1950 S - 2361 Words

Male Vs Female Black Vs White: Playwrights of the 1950’s Lorraine Hansberry was the first Black woman to pen a Broadway play. In her writings, she wrote male characters, many of whom were male protagonists. Being the feminist that she was, many people saw Hansberry’s depiction of Black men in one of two ways; either as an unhappy retreat from her feminist concerns or as a negative representation of Black manhood. Throughout her career, in works such as â€Å"The Village Voice† and â€Å"Les Blancs† Hansberry’s wrote other male characters that showed a progressive, revolutionary movement towards a positive and withstanding view of Black masculinity. Walter asserting his manhood against his mother’s matriarchal dominance can be seen as the principal conflict in Hansberry’s work. Walter’s mother in settled in her traditional and old schools ways and views masculinity as a life-affirming Black tradition, whereas Walter equates manhood and masculinity with how much money one has and being his family’s sole provider. When Walter’s father died his mother received $10,000 in life insurance payments. She takes a portion of the money and uses it to purchase a house in a well-established suburban white neighborhood. In terms of the remaining money, Walter wanted to invest in a liquor store. After much persuading, Mama finally gives in and gives Walter the rest of the money. When the investment goes belly up Walter loses all the money. His attempt to establish his manhood ironically made himShow MoreRelatedThemes In Clybourne Park And Water By The Spoonful1516 Words   |  7 PagesThemes are one of the m ost vital and critical elements of a play’s overall significance and meaning. Without identifying what tools a playwright uses to construct his/her play through a close reading, such as language, character, or setting, the audience would lack a clear vision of the particular play’s meaning. In the case of Clybourne Park, by Bruce Norris, and Water by the Spoonful, by Quiara Alegria Hudes, race can be identified as a theme in both, through the use of literary devices, howeverRead MoreOrganisational Theory230255 Words   |  922 Pagesmanaging, organizing and reflecting on both formal and informal structures, and in this respect you will find this book timely, interesting and valuable. Peter Holdt Christensen, Associate Professor, Copenhagen Business School, Denmark McAuley et al.’s book is thought-provoking, witty and highly relevant for understanding contemporary organizational dilemmas. The book engages in an imaginative way with a wealth of organizational con cepts and theories as well as provides insightful examples from theRead MoreA Picatrix Miscellany52019 Words   |  209 PagesLondon, The Warburg Institute, University of London, 1962 French B. Bakhouche, F. Fauquier, B. Pà ©rez-Jean: Picatrix Un traità © de magie mà ©dià ©val. 388 p., 130 x 210 mm, 2003, Paperback ISBN 2-503-51068-X, EUR 37.91. Newest critical edition. French S. Matton, La magie arabe traditionelle, Paris, 1977 (incomplete) Latin Picatrix: The Latin Version of the Ghà ¢yat Al-Hakà ®m, ed. David Pingree (London, Warburg Institute, 1986). Spanish Abul-Casim Maslama ben Ahmad: Picatrix (El fin del sabio y el mejor

Ap World Essay Compare and Contrast Free Essays - PhDessay.com

1 – The ancient civilizations of our past are full of mystery and information. Even though some civilizations were miles apart and in different time periods they created some things that were very similar. The Book of the Dead from Egypt is quite similar to the Code of Hammurabi which is from Babylon. We will write a custom essay sample on Ap World Essay: Compare and Contrast or any similar topic only for you Order Now Yet the Code of Hammurabi is also similar to the Ten Commandments which is from Israel but at the same time is similar to an Egyptian student guideline. Though these four things are very different from one another they are also quite similar as well. – The Book of the Dead originated from Egypt. It was a testimony in which Judgment was based on. The testimony basically explains righteousness and purity; that the individual has done nothing wrong or impure. It is the point of when Osiris makes a judgment on whether the soul should live in a heaven like place or something similar to the underworld. This is like if you do something bad when you lived you’ll pay for it in your afterlife; which is very similar to how the Code of Hammurabi is based. 3- The Code of Hammurabi originates from Babylon. It is how people were to behave. Very similar to the phrase,†An eye for an eye, a hand for a hand. † In some cases the quote is taken very literal such as â€Å"195. If a son has struck his father, they shall cut off his hand. † This was the law. 4- The Ten Commandments originated from Israel. They were very similar to laws, except these were created by the God of their religion. Though they are connected to the Code of Hammurabi by law they are also connected to the Book of the Dead. This is because in the Ten Commandments it says â€Å"13- You shall not kill. 4- You shall not commit adultery. 15- You shall not steal. 16†¦. † This in which is similar to the Book of the Dead for it promotes purity and righteousness. 5- The Guidelines for Egyptian students originates from Egypt! The guidelines emphasize to always work hard and to not be lazy. It is the expectations of the students. Even though it was written by fathers to their sons it seems like an enfo rced rule. The passage basically says Focus on your studies to aim to become a scribe. Since scribes have the most power, â€Å"But the scribe, he directs every work that is in the land! Though this passage seems quite different from the other passages there are some similarities. The expectations of the students â€Å"duty† is similar to the Ten Commandments for the rules are what is expected of them. 6- Even though time barriers and physical barriers separated the Book of the Dead, the Code of Hammurabi, the Ten Commandments, and the Guidelines for Egyptian students they still managed to have many similarities. Some of them were connected by laws, expectations, religions, and/or dedication. Though they are different topics the concepts were all similar. How to cite Ap World Essay: Compare and Contrast, Essay examples

Phonological and Prosodical Study on Cebuano, Waray and Hiligaynon Essay Example

Phonological and Prosodical Study on Cebuano, Waray and Hiligaynon Essay A Phonological and Prosodical Contrastive Study of Waray, Cebuano, and Hiligaynon Submitted by: Pedroza, Kristel Doone Q. Uy, Mary Colleen U. Submitted to: Prof. Ria Parsram Rafael As a requirement in Linguistics 120 First Semester AY 2010-2011 Department of Linguistics University of the Philippines, Diliman October 18, 2010 A Phonological and Prosodical Contrastive Study of Waray, Cebuano, and Hiligaynon Pedroza, Kristel Doone Q. Uy, Mary Colleen U. Abstract Every language constitutes its own sound system, and this sound system is a very important aspect when learning or studying a language. Along with this sound system are the prosodic features of a language. This study is about the phonological system and the prosodic features of three of the Bisayan Languages, namely Waray, Cebuano and Hiligaynon. The phonological system and the prosodic features of these languages were already studied by Zorc (1975) and Jacobson (1979) but the authors still felt the need to further deepen the scope of their studies. Aside from analyzing the basic phonology of the three languages, this study will also tackle the effect of affixation on the prosodic features of the three languages. To be able to study and analyze the said features, the authors used the data gathered from eliciting materials answered by the informants of the study. After the analysis done, the authors were able to present the relevant findings of the study. First is the basic phonetic system of the three languages and their similarities and differences. We will write a custom essay sample on Phonological and Prosodical Study on Cebuano, Waray and Hiligaynon specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Phonological and Prosodical Study on Cebuano, Waray and Hiligaynon specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Phonological and Prosodical Study on Cebuano, Waray and Hiligaynon specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Second is the basic description of the prosodic features of the three languages and their similarities and differences. And lastly, the most important of all, are the changes that occur for every language when affixation happens on a morpheme, the specific affixes that contribute to regular stress shift, and their similarities and differences. This signifies that since the languages studied are of a common classification, several similarities would be evident. But, since they are still classified as different languages, they would also have distinct characteristics from each other. I. Introduction Learning a language begins with the recognition of the different sound systems of the language, because the sense and consequently the understanding of a word depends upon its pronunciation. In the field of linguistics, the study of the sound system of a language is called phonetics. Phonetics provides a systematic study of a language from its smallest element called the segments, which are then classified to consonants and vowels. Embedded in the sound system of a language is what we call the suprasegmentals or the prosodic features of a language. Suprasegmentals are features associated with stretches larger than the segment, in particular pitch, stress and duration (Gussenhoven, 2001). While it is not the paper’s primary aim to teach a language, this study provides a comparative study of three of the Bisayan languages with regards to their phonological and prosodic structure. A. Background of the Languages The Bisayan languages is a group of Philippine languages heavily distributed in the islands of Visayas, the Bicol Region, and in some parts of Mindanao and Luzon. Zorc (1975) mentions 36 languages of the Bisayan languages, the Bisayan dialects, together with Tagalog and the Bikol languages as the languages that make up the Central-Philippine Subgroup (McFarland, 1994). This study focuses on three of the Bisayan languages: Waray, Cebuano and Hiligaynon. McFarland groups Waray and Hiligaynon under the Central Bisayan Subgroup and Cebuano under the South Bisayan Languages. Zorc, on the other hand, separates Waray and Hiligaynon to the Warayan Subgroup and Peripheral Subgroup, respectively, both under the higher order subgroup of Central Bisayan while Cebuano is placed under the Cebuano Subgroup. Waray (or Waray-Waray) is a Philippine language spoken in the provinces of Samar, Northern Samar, Eastern Samar, Leyte and Biliran. As of the year 2000 census of Ethnologue, it has an estimated 2. 5 million speakers. Some of its dialects are Samar-Leyte, Northern Leyte, Leyte, Utudnon and Baybay. 1 Cebuano (or Sugbuhanon) is a Philippine language spoken in the provinces of Cebu, Negros, Bohol, some parts of Leyte and Samar, and in Mindanao. As of the year 2000 consensus of Ethnologue, it has an estimated 16 million speakers in the Philippines and in 1 Information taken from http://www. ethnologue. com/show_language. asp? code=war, accessed Oct. 14, 2010 other countries, and is the most widely spoken Visayan language. It has four dialects: Cebu, Boholano, Leyte, and Mindanao Visayan. 2 Hiligaynon (or Ilonggo) is a Philippine language spoken in Western Visayas, which includes the Panay Island and Negros Occidental, and in many parts of Mindanao. As of the year 2000 consensus of Ethnologue, it has an estimated 6 million speakers. 3 Figure 1. 0 Distribution of Visayan languages taken from: http://en. wikipilipinas. rg/images/thumb/1/10/Visayan_language_distribution_map. png B. Objective of the Study Generally, the aim of this study is to present a comparative analysis of the phonology and prosody of the Visayan languages Waray, Cebuano and Hiligaynon. Specifically, the authors would like to find the answers to the following questions: (a) With regards to phonetics, what are the similarities and the differences between these three lang uages? (b) 2 3 Information taken from http://www. ethnologue. com/show_language. asp? code=ceb, accessed Oct. 3, 2010 Information taken from http://www. thnologue. com/show_language. asp? code=hil, accessed Oct. 3, 2010 How do phonetic features affect the suprasegmental features of speech, specifically stress and length, of the languages? (c) How do the suprasegmental features affect the meaning of different lexical items? (d) How does the morphological process of affixation affect the suprasegmental features for each language? And (e) Is there any uniformity with the phonological changes that take place when affixation has been made and how do we explain them? C. Importance of the Study This study will be a contribution to the growing knowledge of the linguistic community. It will be able to help other Linguistics students, and even those who are not, understand the languages that will be studied and give additional information to other linguistic organizations like SIL. As this paper deals with the smallest elements of the language, this paper can serve as a strong foundation for those who wish to learn to speak the languages correctly. The data that the authors presented and analyzed may also serve as points to prove or disprove certain theories like Sub-grouping or Phonetic Universals. And lastly, this may be a stepping stone for a new study on Philippine Languages using the Lexical Conservatism Approach, as this concept seems to be a modern one, and only a few scholars have dealt with it. D. Scope of the Study So as to give a basic description of each language, the study will tackle first the phonetic system of the three languages. This will only include the identification of the phonemes present in each of the languages and the presentation of examples for each phoneme. The features to be tackled in the comparative analysis of the phonologies of the languages will include the number of phonemes each language has and the phonemes present in each of the language. The prosodic features will be tackled next. The features that will only be included are stress and length. A basic description of the stress and length of each language will be given first then a more detailed description concerning the effects of affixation, and lastly, a comparative analysis of the findings. E. Methodology To be able to answer the questions and fulfill the goal of this study, the esearchers went through the following steps: First, the authors chose 200 unaffixed words from published dictionaries in each language to be studied. Heteronyms which can be subjected to affixation were also included. The words that were chosen came from the core vocabulary of the languages. Second, the informants (1 primary and 1 for checking for each language) translated and read the words the au thors have chosen. Third, the informants read the second batch of wordlist which is comprised of 50 words: 2 unaffixed verbs and the other 48 their affixed derivations. The recitations of all the informants were recorded. After these, the authors proceeded with the presentation and analysis of the data given by the informants. F. Informant Profile This study presented the analysis based on the materials gathered from the primary sources – the informants. There was a maximum of two informants for each of the three languages: the first informant provided the terms of their designated language and the basis for our transcription while the second informant reviewed and validated the information given by the first informant, and gave additional items that the informant believed is helpful for the study. The primary informant for Cebuano is Ms. Helen Verwin. She is 27 years old from Cebu City, Cebu. She has been living in Sucat, Paranaque for 10 years now but still communicates in her first language with her employers and co-workers. The second informant for Cebuano is Mrs. Judith Medallo, 45 years old from Bogo City, Cebu. She has now been working with our primary informant for Cebuano for 5 months. The primary informant for Waray is one of the authors of this study, Ms. Kristel Doone Q. Pedroza, 18 years old. English is her first language but she was born and grew up in Tacloban City, Leyte where she was exposed to Waray. She has been living in Quezon City for more than a year now. The second informant for Waray is Ms. Rochelle Granali, 19 years old. She was born and raised in Tacloban City, Leyte and Waray is her first language. She has been living in Quezon City for 3 years now. Our primary informant for Hiligaynon is Ms. Christel Anne Chu-Santos, 18 years old. She was born in Iloilo and lived there for 3 years before moving to General Santos City, South Cotabato, where she continued to use Hiligaynon when ommunicating with her family and relatives. She has now been living in Quezon City for more than a year. The authors failed to find another Hiligaynon speaker who had the time to contribute to the study so the authors used the Hiligaynon-Tagalog Dictionary of Alcantara (1997) to validate the translation and the pronunciation of each entry given by the informant of Hiligaynon. II. Revi ew of Related Literature Jacobson in his work presented the phonemes of 30 Philippine languages, two of which are the focus of the study: Cebuano and Hiligaynon. The study illustrated a large percentage of similar phonemes which include: /p/, where in Cebuano the allophone [p] of the phoneme /p/ is unreleased while in Hiligaynon the allophone is slightly aspirated, /t/, which also has the same case as that of /p/, /b/ and /d/ which are unreleased in both languages, /k/, /g/, /l/, /s/, /h/, /m/, /n/, /? /, /w/, /y/, /? /, /i/, /a/, and /u/. The allophones included are [s] of the phoneme /s/, [i] of the phoneme /? /, [u] of the phoneme /? /, [? ] of the phoneme /? / in both languages, and [r] of the phoneme /r/ in Hiligaynon. The phonemes /f/, /v/, /ts/, /dz/ and /? are usually found in loan words of Hiligaynon. Together with that are the allophones [e] of the phoneme /? / for Cebuano and [o] of the phoneme /? / in both languages, which are results of contact and trade. The allophones [i] of the phoneme /e/ in Cebuano and [u] of the phoneme /o/ in both languages are the only ones that cannot be found in loan words and trade languages. Lastly, J acobson presented /ts/ and /dz/ as portmanteau forms that occur in place of the clusters /ts/ and /ds/ in Cebuano. 4 Together with the phones of Hiligaynon and Cebuano, Jacobson also presented the existence of stress and lengthening. His study illustrated that stress exists in both languages while length doesn’t. Unfortunately, no further explanation followed. The symbols presented were the ones used in the study of Jacobson. While the authors have understood most of the phonological descriptions, they chose not to change any of the symbols used as they might be mistaken and this might result to uncertainty. 4 In Zorc’s work, in an attempt to prove the Bisayan unity, Zorc stated that all Bisayan dialects have penultimate rather than ultimate stress, and considers this an innovation of Bisayan dialects. With regards to length, Zorc posited that Bisayan dialects except for the Waray group have lost antepenultimate length in the cases of verb prefixes. This phenomenon is parallel to that of Tagalog and Bikolano and is seen as retention of the PPH. Also, affixation and any morphological change may result to stress shift. This can be seen in numerous languages and may be considered universal. Zorc mentioned that Bisayan dialects do not have any enclitic that operates like a suffix as opposed to that of Tagalog but when a morpheme is joined by an enclitic, the enclitic carries the stress. III. Presentation of Data The information that will be presented in this section is a summary of the phonological construction of the languages being studied. This will be divided into two parts, the first will show the segments of each language and its suprasegmental features using simple morphemes as the basis, and the second part is the change of suprasegmental features once morphophonemic change occurred. A. Base Words 1. Phonetic System a. The Consonants of Cebuano, Waray, and Hiligaynon Shown below are the consonant phonemes present in Waray, Cebuano and Hiligaynon presented in a phonemic chart, and the examples from each language for each phoneme. Both Waray and Cebuano have 16 consonant phonemes, namely /p/, /b/, /t/, /d/, /k/, /g/, /m/, /n/, /? /, /? /, /r/, /l/, /j/, /w/, /h/, and /? /, while Hiligaynon has 18 consonant phonemes as the phonemes /? / and /? / occur in it. Table 1. 1 The Consonant Phonemes of Waray, Cebuano, and Hiligaynon Bilabial Alveolar Nasal Stops Fricatives Trill Glide Approximant Lateral Approximant r j w l p m b t n d ? ? ? k PostPalatal Velar Glottal Alveolar ? g ? h Table 1. 2 Examples of the Consonant Phonemes Cebuano p b t d k g m n ? ? ? ? r l j w ? h /k?.? r? s/ /l?.? ju? / /b. j? / /t?. g?.? w / /? tu.? u/ /? u.? h? w/ /p. /? b?. n? / /? t? n. d / /d. g? n/ /k?.? m? t/ /g?.? m? j/ /s?. n. n / /? du?. g? n/ / m/ -‘rake’ ‘far’ ‘girl’ ‘old’ ‘right’ ‘thirsty’ /hu.? r? m/ /l?. j/ /p?.? t? j/ /w?.? l? / /k?.? t / /h. mut/ ‘leg’ ‘to stand’ ‘to run’ ‘hand’ ‘smallâ€⠄¢ ‘clothing’ ‘ear’ ‘nine’ /p?.? t / /tu?. n / /d. k / /k?.? w? / /gu. t.? j/ /m?.? t / /d. h? n/ /? l. k? d/ /. / Waray ‘seven’ ‘clothing’ ‘earth’ ‘big’ ‘movement’ ‘small’ ‘eyes’ ‘leaf’ ‘to sit’ ‘correct’ -‘borrow’ ‘to swim’ ‘dead’ ‘left’ ‘we’ ‘smell’ Hiligaynon /? pu?. k / /b?.? s / /? tug. n? w/ /du?. t / /k?. b?.? l? / /? w?. p? / /m?.? n? k/ /t?.? n? n/ /. l? n/ / / / k. t? / / u. t? j/ /s?.? r? / /pu.? l? / /g?.? m? j/ /bw? s/ /b?.? s / /? h? k. w? t/ ‘to sit’ ‘wet’ ‘cold’ ‘earth’ ‘to know’ ‘beautiful’ ‘chicken’ ‘all’ ‘name’ ‘he/she/it’ ‘correct’ ‘small’ ‘to close’ â⠂¬Ëœred’ ‘few’ ‘tomorrow ‘wet’ ‘to carry’ ‘husband’ /b. d / /. m?.? h? n/ ‘father’ b. The Vowels of Waray, Cebuano, and Hiligaynon Shown below are the vowel phonemes of Waray, Cebuano, and Hiligaynon presented in a vowel chart, and the examples from each language for each phoneme. Both Waray and Cebuano have 4 vowel phonemes, namely /? /, /? /, /u/, and /? , while Hiligaynon has 6 vowel phonemes, as the phonemes /? / and /? / occur in it. Table 2. 1 The Vowel Phonemes of Waray, Cebuano and Hiligaynon Front Close Near close Central Back u ? ? Close mid Open mid Open ? ? ? Table 2. 2 Examples of the Vowel Phonemes Cebuano ? u ? ? ? ? /t?. l/ /? u.? l? t/ /?.? n? m/ ‘foot’ ‘grey’ /s?.? p? t/ /lu.? p? d/ /. r? n/ -Waray ‘beside’ ‘to fly’ ‘to swim’ ‘name’ Hiligaynon /? h?. m / /? hu. l? g/ /? t? k. l? d/ /? k? r. n? / /su.? b / Ã¢â‚¬Ë œto do’ ‘movement’ ‘to push’ ‘meat’ ‘today’ ‘to drink’ /l?. j/ /?. m?.? h? n/ ‘father’ /g?.? b? d. l? k/ ‘shiny’ 2. Prosodic Features a. The Prosodic Features of Cebuano Table 3. 0 Cebuano Heteronyms ‘thread’ ‘poison’ ‘to spill’ ‘spendthrift’ ‘sugar cane’ ‘pipe’ /h?.? l? / /? h?. l? / /? j?. b? / /j?.? b? / /tu.? b? / /? tu. b? / ‘to go with’ ‘white hair’ ‘to come down’ ‘to win’ ‘crippled’ ‘corncob’ /? u.? b? n/ / u. b? n/ /m?.? n?. ug/ /m?. n?.? ug/ /? p?. k? w/ /p?.? k? w/ The words presented above are some of the heteronyms collected by the authors. A pair presents similar forms, but a change in stress placement changes the word’s meaning. With stress placement as their only difference, the authors could safely say that stress of Cebuano is phonemic. The stress placement of Cebuano words is usually found in the penultimate syllable. Most of the simple morphemes with three to four syllables still retain the regularity of a penultimate stress placement. However, there are also exceptions to this rule as some of the words gathered has ultimate stress placement. Cebuano words carry length. Like stress, vowel lengthening is regularly found in the penultimate syllable. A lengthened syllable also signifies that stress is also carried in that syllable. However, the presence or the absence of vowel lengthening in a single word does not result to a change in meaning. . The Prosodic Features of Waray Stress in Waray is phonemic. A change in stress placement results to a change in meaning. The words presented below are some of the heteronyms found wherein stress placement is the only difference. Table 4. 1 Waray Heteronyms with Different Stress Placement ‘to smell’ ‘to smell’ /h?.? m? t/ /? h?. m? t/ ‘to study ’ ‘to cook rice’ /tu. n/ /tu.? n/ ‘to know’ ‘agreement’ /s?.? b? t/ /? s?. b? t/ ‘floor’ ‘river’ /s?.? l / /? s?. l? g/ However, there are words that have different meanings but are similar both in form and stress placement. Waray speakers distinguish the meaning of these words based on the context of the words and how they are used in the sentence. The words presented below are some of the heteronyms found wherein stress placement is similar but the meanings are different. Table 4. 2 Waray Heteronyms with Similar Stress Placement ‘sun’ ‘day’ ‘how many? ’ ‘some’ / d. l? w/ / d. l? w/ /p?.? r? / /p?.? r? / ‘object’ ‘to put down’ / bu.? t / / bu.? t / Most Waray words carry their stress in the penultimate syllable. But, there are still exceptions to the rule as there are words that carry their stress in the ultimate and antepenultimate syllable. Vowel lengthening on the other hand is found in the penultimate syllable only. A lengthened syllable also signifies that stress falls on that syllable. c. The Prosodic Features of Hiligaynon Stress in Hiligaynon is phonemic. Shown below are some of the heteronyms found that have similar forms but different stress placement and different meanings. Table 5. 1 Hiligaynon Heteronyms with Different Stress Placement ‘fire’ ‘far’ ‘tree’ ‘full’ /k l?. j? / /k?. l?.? j / /? pu. n / /pu.? n / ‘hunger’ ‘hungry’ ‘other’ ‘bad’ /? gu. t? m/ /gu.? t? m/ /l?. n/ /? l?. n/ However, there are words with similar forms and similar stress placement but with different meanings. Show below are some of the heteronyms found with similar stress placement but with different meanings. Table 5. 2 Hiligaynon Heteronyms with Similar Stress Placement ‘day’ ‘sun’ ‘to count’ ‘to think’ / d. l? w/ / d. l? w/ /. s? p/ /. s? p/ ‘father’ ‘master’ /. m? / /. m? / Stress of Hiligaynon words generally falls on the penultimate syllable. But there are still many words whose stress also falls on the ultimate and even the antepenultimate syllable. Concerning words with four or more syllables, stress falls on the penultimate or ultimate syllable. Hiligaynon words carry length. Like stress, lengthened syllables are often the penultimate syllable, but it can also be the ultimate syllable. When a syllable is lengthened, the stress automatically falls on that syllable. B. Affixed Words I. Cebuano When Cebuano words are affixed, there is a tendency to stress shift. The stress of the new formed items usually depends on the base word or on the affix added. Table 6. 1 Cebuano Prefixes that Do Not Contribute to Stress Shift /? t?. w? g/ /mu-/ /n -/ /n? / /mu.? t?. w? g/ /n.? t?. w? g/ /n?.? t?. w? g/ /? u.? b? n/ /mu.? u.? b? n/ /n.? u.? b? n/ /n?.? u.? b? n/ The affixes cited above are the examples of affixes that do not contribute to stress shift. That is, regardless of affixation, stress is still placed on the stressed syllable of the base word. While the affixes above do not result to the shift in stress, there are affixes that cont ribute to the order of the placement of stress. These affixes are ka-, nag-, mag- and gi-. The first three affixes place the stress in the penultimate syllable while gi- positions stress in the ultimate syllable. Table 6. 2 Cebuano Prefixes that Contribute to Certain Stress Placement /k? -/ /n? g-/ /m? g-/ /g? -/ /? t?. w? g/ /n? g.? t?. w? g /m? g.? t?. w? g/ /g?. t?.? w? g/ /? u.? b? n/ /k?. u. b? n/ /n? g.? u. b? n/ /m? g.? u. b? n/ /g?.? u.? b? n/ When suffixes are added, the stress property of the base word is copied. This means that if the base word has its stress on the penultimate syllable, then the stress of the newly affixed word is also in the penultimate syllable but not necessarily on the same syllable as that of the base word. Table 6. 3 Cebuano Suffixes /? ?. w? g/ /-? / /-? / /-? n/ /t?.? w?. g? / /t?.? w?. g? / /t?.? w?. g? n/ /? u.? b? n/ /? u. b?.? n? / /? u. b?.? n? / /? u. b?.? n? n/ Affixation in Cebuano is not confined with using only one affix at a time. When two or more affixes are used, there is always one affix that influences the stress placement more than the other. An example of this is when the affix pa5- is used with mag-, nag-, and gi-. The affix pa5- cancels out the stress property and places the stress back to the stressed syllable of the base word. Table 6. 4 Cebuano Prefixes with the Affix -pa/? ?. w? g/ /n? g. p?.? t?. w? g/ /m? g. p?.? t?. w? g/ /g?. p?.? t?. w? g/ /? u.? b? n/ /n? g. p?.? u.? b? n/ /m? g. p?.? u.? b? n/ /g?. p?.? u.? b? n/ /k? -/ + /-p? -/ /n? g-/ + /-p? -/ /m? g-/ + /-p? -/ /g? -/ + /-p? -/ When a suffix is used with other affixes, the stress property of the new item is dictated and influenced by the suffix. Table 6. 5 Cebuano Prefixes with Suffixes 5 The affix pa- cannot be used alone, it is usually found together with the prefixes mag-, nag-, gi- and suffixes. /? t?. w? g/ /g? -/ + /-? n/ /p? -/ + /-? / /g?. t?.? w?. g? / /p?. t?.? w?. g? / /? u.? b? n/ /g?.? u. b?.? n? n/ /p?.? u. b?.? n? / /n? -/ +/-? n/ /n?. t?.? w?. g? n/ /n?.? u. b?.? n? n/ II. Waray Stress shift in Waray is influenced by three aspects: the base word, the morphophonemic change the word went through due to affixation, and the type of word t he affix brought about. When a word whose accent is at the penultimate syllable undergoes affixation, stress shift does not occur, regardless of the type or the number of affixes used. Shown below are some of the words whose stress is at the penultimate syllable. Table 7. Waray Words with Stress at the Penultimate Syllable /? t?. w / / n. t?.? t?. w / /p?. t?.? w?. / /k?. t?.? t?. w / /m?.? t?. w / /? b?. s? / / n.? b?. s? / /p?.? b?. s? / /n.? b?. s? / /m?.? b?. s? / /? l. kud/ / n. p?.? l. kud/ /n?.? l. kud/ /m?.? l. kud/ /p?.? l. ku. r? / When words with stress on ultimate syllable are joined together with an affix, three of the scenarios may occur. First, the stress property of the base word is retained; second, when affixation occurred followed by partial reduplication, stress is placed on the first reduplicated syllable. The reduplicated syllable may come from the initial syllable of the base word, or from another affix; and third, when the affix used results to a change in the part of speech, for example from verb to noun or adjective, the stress is placed on the penultimate syllable. The presence of the stress in the penultimate syllable in nouns and adjectives is an observable regularity in Waray. Shown below are some of the words whose stress is at the ultimate syllable. The verb used is /? u.? p? d/. Table 7. 2 Waray Words with Stress at the Ultimate Syllable Affixation /m?.? u.? p? d/ Affixation with Reduplication /m?. .? up. d? n/ Change in Category /k?. u. p? d/ (Verb to Noun) /n? g. u.? p? d/ /n?.? u.? p? d/ /g? n.? u.? p? d/ /n? g.? p?. p?.? u. p? d/ /n?.? k?. k?.? u. p? d/ /g? n.? p?. p?.? u. p? d/ - III. Hiligaynon Affixation in Hiligaynon contributes to stress shift. The resulting placement of stress often depends on the affix added and/or what kind of affix it is. When a prefix is added to a morpheme, the stress usually shifts to the prefix added. Shown below are some of the prefixes and examples. Table 8. 1 Hiligaynon Prefixes that Become Stressed /t?.? w? g/ /g? n-/ /n? g-/ /m? -/ /g? / /? g? n. t?. wag/ /? n? g. t?. w? g/ /? m?. t?. w? g/ /? u.? p? d/ /? g? n.? u. p? d/ /? n? g.? u. p? d/ /? m?.? u. p? d/ /? g?.? u. p? d/ However, stress can also fall on the ultimate syllable of the affixed morpheme as shown below. The affixes added may also be pointed out as the affixes that can contribute to the retention of stress placement. Table 8. 2 Hiligaynon Prefixes that Contribute to Retention of Stress /t?.? w? g/ /p? -/ /p?. t?.? w? g/ /? u.? p? d/ /p?.? u.? p? d/ /n? -/ /n?.? u.? p? d/ When multiple prefixes are added, stress still usually falls on the first prefix added. Shown below are the examples. Table 8. 3 Multiple Hiligaynon Prefixes with Stress on First Syllable /t?.? w? g/ /g? n-/ + /-p? -/ /n? g-/ + /-p? -/ /n? -/ + /-g? -/ /n? -/ + /-k? -/ /g? -/ + /-n? -/ + /-p? / But, stress can also fall on the second prefix added. An example is shown below. Table 8. 4 Multiple Hiligaynon Prefixes with Stress on Second Syllable /t?.? w? g/ /n? -/ + /-p? / Suffixes can also be added to morphemes. Note that when suffixes are added, the morphophonemic change deletion happens to the base morpheme before the suffix is added to it. Stress usually falls on the suffix added or, in the case of multiple suffixes, on the ultimate syllable. Some examples are shown below. Table 8. 5 Hiligaynon Suffixes /t?.? w? g/ /-? n/ /t? w.? g? n/ /? u.? p? d/ -/? u.? p? d/ /n?.? p?.? u. p? d/ /? g? n. p?. t?. w? g/ /? n? g. p?. t?. w? g/ /? n?. g?. t?. w? g/ /? n?. k?. t?. w? g/ /? u.? p? d/ /? g? n. p?.? u. p? d/ /? n? g. p?.? u. p? d/ -/? g?. n?. p?.? u. p? d/ /-? n/ /-? n-/ + /-? j/ /? up.? d? n/ /? up. d?.? n? j/ Interestingly, a minimal pair with suffixes was found by the authors. Shown below are the two words that differ in stress placement and meanings. Table 8. 6 Hiligaynon Heteronym with Suffix /? u.? p? d/ ‘samahan’ ‘sasamahan’ /? up.? d? n/ / up. d? n/ When both prefixes and suffixes are added to a morpheme, stress placement can vary. Sometimes it can fall on the prefix added as shown below. Table 8. 7 Multiple Hiligaynon Affixes with Stress on First Syllable /t?.? w? g/ / g? n -/ + /-? n/ /n? -/ + /-g? -/ + /-? n-/ + /-? j/ /? g? n. t? w. g? n/ /? u.? p? d/ /? n?. g?.? up. d?. n? j/ It can also fall on the ultimate syllable as shown below. Table 8. Multiple Hiligaynon Affixes with Stress on Ultimate Syllable /t?.? w? g/ /n? g-/ + /-? n-/ + /-? j/ /n? g. t? w. g?.? n? j/ /? u.? p? d/ /n? g.? up. d?.? n? j/ /m? g.? up. d?.? n? j/ /g?.? up. d?.? n? j/ /m? g-/ + /-? n-/ + /-? j/ /m? g. t? w. g?.? n? j/ /g? -/ + /-? n-/ + /-? j/ Lastly, it can also fall on the penultimate syllable as shown below. Table 8. 9 Multiple Hiligaynon Affi xes with Stress on Penultimate Syllable /t?.? w? g/ /g? -/ + /-n? -/ + /-? n/ /m? -/ + /-? n/ /p? -/ + /-? / /g?. n?.? t? w. g? n/ /? u.? p? d/ /g?. n?. up. d? n/ /m?.? up. d? n/ /p?. p. d? / IV. Conclusion The data presented above are a number of lexical items found in the vocabulary of the languages being studied. These lexical items showed the different phonemes that exist in these three languages. Cebuano and Waray share the same consonants and vowels while Hiligaynon differs as it has two other consonants: [? ] and [? ], and two other vowels: [? ] and [? ]. The segments presented in this paper are very close to that of Jacobson’s paper, although there are differences between the vowel system presented in Jacobson’s study and from the one presented in this paper. These differences may be accounted for by the presence of lexical items that are results of contact and trade. It was stated earlier that embedded in the sound system of the languages are its suprasegmental features, and this paper focused at the stress and length of all three languages. The authors wrote earlier that stress is regularly found on the penultimate syllable of all languages in focus. This being the general rule means that lexical items whose stress is located at the ultimate and antepenultimate syllable is considered exceptions to the rule. All three languages carry length. When a syllable is lengthened, the stress of the word goes together with it. Length, just like stress, is usually found in the penultimate syllable. Hiligaynon however, carries length in both the penultimate and the ultimate syllable, unlike in Cebuano and Waray. Stress is phonemic as the stress placement of a word affects the meaning of the lexical item. This was seen in the heteronyms, words of similar forms but with different meanings whose stress placement is also different, found by the authors. While stress is a factor to a word’s meaning, length and its presence or absence does not result to a difference in meaning in all three languages. When a word has undergone morphophonemic changes, there are other changes that usually take place. This paper focused on affixation and its effects on stress. Stress shift is observable in all three languages, but each language has its own unique property and explanation for stress shift. The paper mentioned some of the factors that influence stress shift. The first factor is the base word. All three languages have words that have undergone affixation but did not undergo stress shift. This occurrence is usually found in Waray, wherein the stressed syllable is retained even if the word has undergone affixation. Another factor is the affix or affixes added. Both Cebuano and Hiligaynon exhibit regular stress shift depending on the kind of affix or affixes added on the base morpheme. There are affixes that can retain the original stressed syllable of the construction such as the Cebuano affixes mu-, ning- and na-, and the Hiligaynon affixes pa- and na-. There are also other affixes that dictate the placement of stress such as the Cebuano affixes ka-, nag-, mag- and gi-, and the Hiligaynon affixes gin-, nag-, ma- and ga-. Cebuano suffixes copy the stress placement of the base word, that is, if a base word has its stress on the ultimate syllable then the affixed word will carry the stress on the ultimate syllable and the same goes with words that have the stress on the penultimate syllable, while Hiligaynon suffixes carry the stress of the word. Another factor for stress shift is the peripheral morphophonemic changes that occurred together with affixation. This is seen in Waray wherein a word that has undergone affixation and reduplication usually finds its stress on the initial reduplicated syllable. The last factor is the change in category of the word. That is, when an affixed word results to a change in part of speech, the constructed word carries the stress property of the part of speech it belongs to as seen in Waray. Appendix A. Cebuano Wordlist 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. English Word Animal Ear Earth Egg Eye Father Fire Flower Fruit Foot Mat Hair Hand Head Clothing Day Dog Heart Husband House Leaf Body Blood Bird Back Year Woman Wind Wife Cebuano Translation Animal Dunggan Yuta Itlog Mata Amahan Sunog Buwak Prutas Teel Banig Buhok Kamut Ulo Sinina Adlaw Iro Dughan Bana Bay Dahon Lawas Dugo Langgam Likud Tuig Bayi Hangin Asawa Phonemic Transcription /. n?.? m? l/ /? du?. n/ /? j?. t? / / t. l / /m?.? t? / /?. m?.? h? n/ /? su. n / /? bu. w? k/ /? pru. t? s/ /t?. l/ /b?.? n / /bu.? h? k/ /k?.? m? t/ / u. l? / /s?.? n. n? / / d. l? w/ /. r? / /? du?. h? n/ /? b?

Three Primes of Alchemy (Paracelsus Tria Prima)

Three Primes of Alchemy (Paracelsus Tria Prima) Paracelsus identified three primes (tria prima) of alchemy. The Primes are related to the Law of the Triangle, in which two components come together to produce the third. In modern chemistry, you cant combine the element sulfur and mercury to produce the compound table salt, yet alchemy recognized substances reacted to yield new products. Tria Prima, the Three Alchemy Primes Sulfur – The fluid connecting the High and the Low. Sulfur was used to denote the expansive force, evaporation, and dissolution.Mercury - The omnipresent spirit of life. Mercury was believed to transcend the liquid and solid states. The belief carried over into other areas, as mercury was thought to transcend life/death and heaven/earth.Salt - Base matter. Salt represented the contractive force, condensation, and crystallization. Metaphorical Meanings of the Three Primes Sulfur Mercury Salt Aspect of Matter flammable volatile solid Alchemy Element fire air earth/water Human Nature spirit mind body Holy Trinity Holy Spirit Father Son Aspect of Psyche superego ego id Existential Realm spiritual mental physical Paracelsus devised the three primes from the alchemists Sulfur-Mercury Ratio, which was the belief that each metal was made from a specific ratio of sulfur and mercury and that a metal could be converted into any other metal by adding or removing sulfur. So, if one believed this to be true, it made sense lead could be converted into gold if the correct protocol could be found for adjusting the amount of sulfur. Alchemists would work with the three primes using a process called Solve Et Coagula, which translates to mean dissolving and coagulating. Breaking apart materials so they could recombine was considered a method of purification. In modern chemistry, a similar process is used to purify elements and compounds through crystallization. Matter is either melted or else dissolved and then allowed to recombine to yield a product of higher purity than the source material. Paracelsus also held the belief that all life consisted of three parts, which could be represented by the Primes, either literally or figuratively (modern alchemy). The three-fold nature is discussed in both Eastern and Western religious traditions. The concept of two joining together to become one is also related. Opposing masculine sulfur and feminine mercury would join to produce salt or the body.

How to Become a Professional Speech Writer and Use Such a Skill in Adult Life

How to Become a Professional Speech Writer and Use Such a Skill in Adult Life How to Become a Professional Speech Writer and Use Such a Skill in Adult Life A professional speech writer creates powerful and memorable speeches that captivate the audience and inspire others to take action. Public speaking is a great tool and can be used to effectively communicate new ideas, provide with some crucial information, and connect emotionally with the audience. Because of this, professional speech writing is a service that many public speakers rely on. Over the course of this article, youll learn how to write a speech at a professional level. Structure Your Presentation While writing a speech, you should try to structure it to be as concise and understandable as possible. The main goal of public speaking is not to show off or impress others with large vocabulary, but to convey the information in the way that people can understand it. Using simple language as well as sentences will help you communicate the main point easily. Moreover, being precise while speaking is quite useful skill not only while speaking in front of the audience, but also in your daily life. Being able to simplify a complex idea and explain it clearly is the key aspect of effective communication. It provides people with all the key information, without bogging them down in unnecessary details. Hook the Audience Simple language doesnt have to be boring or feel mundane. In fact, the best speeches captivate the audience by using memorable words and phrases. Good speech writers will often repeat key words or phrases throughout their speeches to highlight how important these issues are. Repetition is a good way to hook the audience as well as make it to remember the message. Quotable words and phrases are also good speech devices, since they can often sum up your entire speech in one or two memorable sentences. You can use these tactics in your regular life as well. Using memorable phrases during the daily communication, or while the job interview makes you stick to the listeners mind. Inject Emotion and Be Vivid In good speeches, words are used to paint a vivid picture of what the speaker is talking about. They mentally transport the listeners to the exact situation, and let them visualize the message. By injecting emotions and descriptive phrases into your speech, you turn the mere information into the vivid one, so, you make it almost impossible for the audience to get bored. They will be engrossed in your message for sure. Being able to speak emotionally is a great skill to use in your daily life. It will help you make new friends easily as well as apply for a job without making any efforts. Remember that great speech writers craft informative messages that keep the audiences attention from the very beginning till the very end. And now you know how to force people listen to you with open mouths. Doing so will make your speeches more persuasive and effective once theyre delivered.

E-Marketing Report for www.northbrisbanelandscapes.com.au Assignment

E-Marketing Report for www.northbrisbanelandscapes.com.au - Assignment Example A ranking of the four companies, North Brisbane Landscape, C Price Landscapes, Australian Native Landscapes, and Frosts Garden Centres, chosen in this paper, has also been done to deduce the comparative position of each company. The overall result suggested a lowly position of North Brisbane Landscape, the company discussed in the paper. The company was found to lack in its 7 I’s and 6 C’s components. The recommendations have been done, keeping in focus the deficiencies observed in these two components respectively. Introduction E-marketing is the marketing using digital technologies in order to help selling of the products or services. E-marketing provides businesses houses of any size an easy access to the general mass market within an affordable price range. Specific benefits achieved from e-marketing include the following aspects: global reach, lower cost, results that can be tracked and measured, 24-hour marketing, personalization, one-to-one marketing, etc (Develo ping an E-Marketing Plan, 2005, pp.2-3). Business websites should be maintained by every running company in order to propagate their products and services online. As websites are so important for a company, this needs to be audited on regular basis in order to determine their effectiveness as well as any broken link, i.e. a link which cannot be accessed by the user. A good website audit report would provide information on how often the website is accessed by the users, whether by subscribing or paid advertisements, etc (Website Audit – an Analytical Approach, 2007). In this paper, we will talk about North Brisbane Landscape and compare it with three other websites at the local, national and international levels, namely at local level - C Price Landscapes, nationally - Australian Native Landscapes, and internationally - Frosts Garden Centres located in Oxfordshire, UK. In this research, two tools of the 6Is and the 7Cs will be used to compare and evaluate these three websites. These websites belong to the same industry. The audit report of North side Landscape supplies says that the website of North side Landscape has been experienced in their services for the past 36 years but not experienced in the effectiveness of their website. This is because the website requires more information and features for providing information for their customers or even in dealing with their suppliers. The company lacks in features such as identification, individualization and interaction with customers (North Brisbane Landscape, 2010). The local company, i.e. C Price Landscapes, is better in terms of its homepage contents (C Price Landscapes, 2010). The information is clear and it has communication with the social network users like Facebook. The company chosen at the national level, Australian Native Landscapes, is far better than the rest of the company websites going by its contents and features. The website has made good use of color combination and provides correct li nks to guide its customers (Australian Native Landscapes, 2011). The last company chosen at the international level is Frosts Garden Centres in Oxfordshire. The company has a well maintained website. Interactive marketing Interactive marketing is the ability to address the customer, remember what the customer has said, and address the custo

Essay on Franncisco de Goya Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Essay on Franncisco de Goya - Research Paper Example The first war painting that he created was Los Desastres de la Guerra -The disaster of wars (Castro). Goya produced some of the most disturbing paintings during his last five years. Goya had an ambitious personality (Castro). He was known to be proud and arrogant person. He was a genius artist and over the years the progress in his art can be seen in his works (Castro). By studying Goya work in a chronological order, it is very noticeable, that over the years his worked not only improved but also got stranger. It is said that in the beginning, Goya drew very pessimistic paintings which showed youth and happiness. Goya showed optimism in his initial works. For example, in his paintings ‘The Flower Girls’ and ‘The Little Giants’ he portrays youth and uses a broad color schemes that gives the paintings a certain bliss. These early paintings use bright colors that give an aura of joy to them. However, in 1972, Goya suffered from a serious illness and the age of 47 he had a medical condition due to which he experienced loss of balance, had difficulty in walking with partial blindness and deafness (Emery). Some say that this was caused by a viral disease called Vogt–Koyanagi–Harada syndrome (Emery). Over the years though he recovered from this disease but he became permanently deaf (Emery). This traumatic illness greatly affected the work he produced in later years of his life. The works after this illness shows great pessimism. For example, his painting ‘The Execution on the Third of May’ shows darkness. He has used warm colors like brown, red and yellow and has a very bleak illustration. His work began to show the visions of his minds, visions that were contained the fantastic and ironic images of the world around him. During the period of 1803 – 1805 he painted his two majas ; La maja vestida La and maja desnuda (Castro). The former one shows a clothed women and the later one has the same women but nude. This was another addition to the collection of his peculiar paintings that even got him banned by the Catholic Church and made him face an inquisition (Castro). In1808, when Spain got invaded by Napoleon, Goya became the French court artist (Castro). In 1814 Goya painted his two of his most well known paintings; â€Å"The second of May in 1808† and â€Å"The Third of May in 1808†. These paintings showed the horror of war through which Spain went at the time when Napoleon invaded it. The Spanish civil were dragged and killed due to this invasion and the same has been shown in the paintings. In a way we can say that Goya portrayed reality in his war paintings. These paintings give a strong and brave image of the artist. These paintings also mark the start of the â€Å"19th century realism† (Duthel). The last five years of his life, Goya lived in isolation and during that period he created the most bizarre work of his life called Las Pinturas Negras -the dark paint ings. These are fourteen paintings that he painted on the wall of his house (Castro). According to the critics these painting were so shocking that they were â€Å"only meant for his eyes† (Castro). Out of these fourteen paintings the most disturbing and most famous one was Saturn devouring His Child. In this painting Goya has shown Saturn eating one of his son. Many say that Goya painted these paintings on his house’s wall because he did not want the world to see them. When the Spanish government failed to restore, Goya went on a voluntary exile in France

Violence in the media Essay -- essays research papers

  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Through the past few years you have heard people saying that TV, music, and video games are leading to the increase in violence among teens and the society. There are so many different opinions on the subject, and no real answers. I have an opinion that not everyone would agree with, but when people hear what I have to say they can see where I am coming from.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Through the last five to ten years there have been many reports of school shootings. Everyone immediately turns to the violence in the media. They say that it was the rock music or the violent TV shows. No one stops to look behind the scenes at the family life. The kids that were the ones that commit these crimes, were unpopular and were made fun of on a daily bases. The question that people need to be asking is what made them be the outcast. Most of these teens have parents that work outside the home, and are never there. They are not there to monitor what these kids are watching. They are not taught what is right and what is wrong. They watch violent TV and listen to the cuss words that are being said, and no one is telling that it is not the right for them to act that way, and that it is not expectable. I am not saying that violence comes from the media, what I am saying, is that it comes from the lack of parenting.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In my experience growing up, I do have to admit that I did watch the violent shows and listen to what we call â€Å"i...

Aphra Behn – Gender Economics in the Rover

TERM PAPER Gender Economics of Restoration and Aphra Behn INTRODUCTION The Restoration era allowed women to step into what was historically an essentially masculine space, that of literary and theatrical production. As women stepped on stage, they entered a market- they were commodities displayed to attract a larger crowd towards the theatre.Thus even though through writing or acting a woman could gain financial independence, unlike men they weren’t selling their work, they were ostensibly selling a part of themselves. A woman could not escape commodification even if she didn’t enter this particular market – matrimony and the nunnery were also means of buying and selling of women’s ‘wares’. The hymen itself was a commodity, as a woman could only marry if she was a virgin.In fact arguably in Restoration Comedy no witty unmarried was without ‘property and a maidenhead’. Thus, arguably, a woman could not escape being a prostitute in the Restoration Period. As a woman author who thus reflected the trend of women actors entering the world of theatrical production, Aphra Behn was continually negotiating the dichotomy of economic freedom and control of women in this market-space. Thus her work would be the ideal case study to understand the gender economics of the Restoration Period.In this context, I would like to position Aphra Behn’s works, The Rover Part I and II, The Feign’d Curtizans, The Luckey Chance, The Forced Marriage: or The Jealous Bridegroom and ‘The Golden Age† to understand the place of women in the economics of the Restoration Era and how they negotiated in the market-space they were now stepping into. WOMEN’S PROBLEMATIZED INTRODUCTION IN THE MARKET The restoration of Charles II to the throne brought a almost deliberate reversal of the previously prevalent Puritan ethic. There was a new kind of apparent sexual freedom.He introduced the practice of actresses playing female roles. However, actresses earned far less than actors, thus had to resort to being mistresses. Also, publishing by the women was tantamount to prostitution. Typically, the Restoration comedies portrayed the lives of hedonistic young men who filled their leisure hours with drinking, whoring, theatre and â€Å"wit†. They needed money but had no inclination to actually earn it and preferred procuring it through marriage to an heiress. As in the typical Restoration comedy, men seek sex and money, the girls want a say in the choice of a marriage partner.Thus evidently the heroine is allowed freedom of thought but her freedom of action is confined to ensuring that she is a virgin when she gets married to the man of her choice. As a successful professional playwright, Aphra Behn definitely wrote plays which are typical of the Restoration, yet she manages to comment on a topic which touched her very closely: the true status of women in the society as they begin to participate a little more actively in the constructs of gender economics. POSITIONING APHRA BEHN The prologue of The Rover, claimed to be written by â€Å"A person of quality†, states: As for the author of this coming playI asked him what he thought fit I should say (pp 4) It was only in the third issue of the first edition in 1677 that Aphra Behn authorship. This was because she was always attacked for poaching on the territory of male playwrights. In fact, as quoted in Angeline Goreau, Reconstructing Aphra (New York: The Dial Press, 1980) Aphra Behn once famously said: The Woman damns the poet Indeed, the fact that Aphra Behn could earn a living writing for the theatre was precisely what condemned her. The muckraking satirist Robert Gould wrote ypical stander in a short piece addressed to Behn that concluded with this couplet: For Punk and poetess agree so Par, You cannot be This and not be That. Robert Gould’s verse, with its equation of ‘poetess’ and ‘punkà ¢â‚¬â„¢, provides some evidence of the culture of gender in Restoration England. In her case, however, the status of professional writer indicated immodesty: the author, like her texts, became a commodity. Thus one notices that she stages this relationship between female creativity and public realm or between what Robert Gould, in euphemisms, refers to as ‘this’ and ‘that’, in her works. THE VIRGINAL COMMODITY AND FETISHDowry system among propertied classes had been in place since 16th century, but by the end of the 17th century the women to men ratio was 13:10, thus cash portions had to grow to attract worthy suitors. The value of women fell by almost 50%, marriage by choice, became almost unthinkable. Thus in economic terms, women through marriage had evident exchange value; that is, the virgin became a commodity not only as breeder of the legal heir but for her portion. Women in the seventeenth-century marriage market took on the phantasmagoric destiny o f commodities: they seemed no more than objects or things.The issue arises repeatedly in plays and verse of the period: not only are marriages loveless, but, once married, women lose both independent identity and control of their fortunes. Women’s lack of access to institutions of knowledge spurred protest from writers as it reduced them to things, rather than educated individuals. Also the cultural narrative of portion, jointure, and legal dependency in which the women of this time is written about is clearly not as subject but as object of exchange.Also, as discussed earlier, when Aphra Behn wrote her seventeen play (1670-1689), the theatrical hierarchy, like all cultural institutions, was patriarchal in control and participation. Aristocratic or upper-class males generally wrote the plays, purchased tickets, and formed the coteries of critics and ‘witlings’ whose disruptive presence is remarked on in countless play prologues and epilogues. Also, in its machine ry and properties, the Restoration stage was now arguably more dreamlike, seductive, and commodity intensive. Here the idea of a fetish becomes important.A fetish, by Freud’s description is the male impulse to eroticize objects or female body parts, which derives from a disavowal of a material lack (of the penis on the mother’s body). The second understanding of the word is through Marx’s account of the felicitation of the commodity: at the moment of exchange, the commodity appears to be separate from the workers who product it; the ‘special social character of private labours’ disavowed. This idea is relevant because on the stage, the Restoration actress, is nothing but an ornament in the male gaze.This attitude is apparent as Thomas Shadwell links the new phenomenon of female performers with painted theatrical scenes, both innovative commodities for audience consumption: Had we not for yr pleasure found new wayes You still had rusty Arras had, and thredbare playes: Not Scenes nor Woomen had they had their will, But some with grizl’d Beards had acted Woomen still. What this actually meant in the culture’s sexual economy is perhaps more accurately suggested by meta-theatrical references in plays’ prologues and epilogues.The actress playing Flirt in Wycheley’s The Gentleman Dancing master satirically invited the â€Å"good men o’ th’ Exchange’ from the pit into the backstage tiring-room You we would rather see between our Scenes† Thus rather than producing a performance, the actress emerges as a spectacle unto herself, a painted representation to lure the male spectator. In her professional duplicity, in her desirability, in her often public status of kept mistress, she is frequently equated with a prostitute, thus acquiring the definite status of a commodity.APHRA BEHN’S PARTICIPATION IN COMMODIFICATION AND FETISHISATION The Rover (1677) and The Second Part of The Rover (1681) are Behn’s only plays to label a character a courtesan. In her wholly original The Feigned Curtezans (1679), virgins impersonate famous Roman courtesans and near-debauches occur, but marriages settle the confusion of plots and the financial stink of prostitution is hastily cleared away. However it is germane note that even if courtesans figure by name in only three plays, the commodification of women in the marriage market is Aphra Behn’s first and most persistent theme.Beginning appropriately enough with The Forced Marriage: or The Jealous Bridegrom (1670), all of Behn’s seventeen known plays deal to some extent with women backed by dowries or portions who are forced by their fathers into marriage in exchange for jointure, an agreed-upon income to be settled on the wife should she be widowed. Aphra Behn concentrated on exposing the exploitation of women in the exchange economy, adding vividly to contemporary discourse on the oppressions of marriage . ‘Who would marry,’ asks Behn’s Ariadne (The Second Part of the Rover), ‘who wou’d be chaffer’d thus, and sold to Slavery? In the context of fetishization, it is easy to note the metonymic connection between the painted actress and the painted scenes in the theatre, therefore it is not surprising that the first woman to earn money circulating her own representations had a (somewhat combative) relationship with the theatre apparatus. Aphra Behn, more than any other Restoration playwright, explores the fetish/commodity status. She utilizes the conventional objects of Restoration plays – the marriage market, sexual intrigue, masquerade, flamboyance – even as she signals their contradictory meanings for women.It is ostensibly a contradiction of all feminist expectation to discover that Aphra Behn contributed to that visual pleasure by choosing to exploit the fetish/commodity status of the actress. The stage offered two playing space s, the forestage used especially for comedy, where actor and audience were in intimate proximity, and the upstage or scenic stage, with wing-and-shutter settings, producing the exotic effects needed for ‘discovery scenes’ of heroic tragedy.Writing mostly comedies, Aphra Behn might be expected to follow comic convention and use the forestage area, but as Peter Holland notes, she was ‘positively obsessive’ about discovery scenes. Holland counts 31 discoveries in ten comedies, most of which are bedroom scenes featuring a female character ‘in undress’. Thus displayed, the female performer becomes a fetish object, affording the male spectator the pleasure of being seduced by and, simultaneously, of being protected from the effects of sexual difference.Thus, in Behn’s texts, the conflict between (as she puts it) her ‘defenceless’ woman’s body and her ‘masculine part’(of being a writer), is staged in her insiste nce, in play after play, on the equation between female body and fetish, fetish and commodity-the body in her ‘scenes’. Like the actress, the woman dramatist is sexualized, circulated, denied a â€Å"subject position† in the theatre hierarchy. This unstable, contradictory image of authority emerges in as early as Behn’s first play’s prologue (to The Forced Marriage, or The Jealous Bridegroom, 1670).In this, an actress who, pointing to the Ladies’ praises both them and presumably the woman author: Can any see that glorious sight and say A woman shall not prove Victor today? The ‘glorious sight’, is, once again, the fetishised representation of the female, standing on the forestage, sitting in the pit, and soon to be inscribed as author of a printed play. THE ROVER The Rover is a fascinating study in the context of this paper as it not only thematises the marketing of women in marriage and prostitution, it demonstrates (quite liter ally) the ideological contradictions of the apparatus Behn inherited and the society for which she wrote.Prostitution of both genders In Angellica, Hellena, Florinda and Lucetta – Behn shows the fate and inescapable commodification of all women. However the idea is also problematized and even turned on its head. The man is also equated to a commodity in this carnival world. Angellica equates dowry to prostitution money, thus saying that a man sells his own self in the marriage market, for a woman’s â€Å"fortune†: Pray tell me, sir, are you not guilty of the same mercenary crime?When a lady is proposed to you for a wife, you never ask, how fair-discreet-or virtuous she is; but what’s her Fortune-which, if but small, you cry-she will not do my business-and basely leave her, thou she languish for you-say, is not this as poor. (pp 38) Thus we see that Angellica’s prostitution image is cross gendered, for men are designated â€Å"mercenary† in n egotiating sexual contracts between husband and wife. Indeed, Willmore himself appears prostituted in accepting five hundred crowns from Angellica, and in the subplot, Blunt’s barbarous treatment by Lucetta parallels Angellica’s by Willmore.The Portrait of Angellica The first references to Angellica situate her beyond the market in which we expect her to function. She is not behind an exotic vizard, or ‘discovered’ in her bedchamber after the parting of the scenes, but is first seen as a portrait. She is introduced by Belvile, as: A famous courtesan, that’s to be sold’ (p. 23). For a mindful audience, this immediately raises a question, to be sold by whom? Released by the earlier keeper’s death, Angellica and Moretta are two women who seem to be in business for themselves.At this point, however, Blunt reminds us again of the object status of the woman, as of her painted signs: I’m sure we’re no chapmen for the commodity ( p. 28). On the other hand, Angellica’s self portrait has been compared to that of a Petrarchan mistress who attempts to turn her sexuality into an alternative form of power, since she has been excluded from the marital marketplace. Wilmore’s â€Å"appeal of love† attracts her and not unlike ladies in marital market, she gives up herself and her gold. If one analyzes this situation, it can be said that this was an inescapable fate.As Angellica watches men gaze upon her portrait, she is, first and foremost, a sight, an object to be claimed. Only in Behn’s text is this phenomenon made so evident, the paintings here function as fetishes, as substitute objects for the female body. Indeed, the portrait which advertises her charms is arguably a sign of submission to the male spectator, offering up the female figure as an eroticized object which exists to serve his pleasure. Thus evidently Wilmore can reduce Angellica’s representation from an icon of autho rity to a pornographic image (a fetish) and claim the right â€Å"of possession, which I will maintain†.He is responding to something very real in the portrait. The same sense of power of a transcendent male authority is also registered by Willmore’s gaze and the stealing of the potrait. In effect Angellica is then doubly commodified-first because she puts her body into exchange, and second because this body is equated with, indeed interchangeable with, the art object. Thus then the woman â€Å"that’s to be sold† is then even sold by theatre itself, which, like the portrait equates woman with an art object to be displayed and attract an audience. Like Willmore, the theatre operates with the king’s patent and authorization.The masquerade of portraits and ‘discovery scenes’, do not demonstrate freedom, but to flaunt the charms that guarantee and uphold male power. In fact in the wooing/bargaining scene with Wilmore it becomes clear that Angellica wants to step out of the exchange economy symbolized by the painting: Canst thou believe [these yielding joys] will be entirely time, / without considering they were mercenary? (p. 39) By eliminating her value-form, Angellica attempts to return her body to a state of nature, to take herself out of circulation in the market. However, s Aphra Behn poignantly points out through her texts, Angellica will fail due to the ecomonic structure which circulates all women as marketable objects. The Virgins This brings us to the other two â€Å"leading women† in the play, both virgins and of high birth, Hellena and Florinda. Ironically, the virgins’ first costume, the gypsy masquerade, represents their actual standing in the marriage market – exotic retailers of fortunes (dowry and ‘maidenhead’). Their masquerade defers but does not alter the structure of gender economics which sold a woman’s body.On this level, as often discussed by critics, t he play presents a dramatic world dominated by the two principal patriarchal definitions of women, the whore and the virgin, but in which the boundary separating one category from the other has become blurred. First there is the elder born, Florinda. The properties which sustain Florinda’s status as an autonomous subject free to choose her own marriage partner are largely those for which the men in her family want to â€Å"protect† her; it is her beauty, rank and fortune that make her such a prized asset on the marriage market.It is Florida’s rebellion against the commodification of forced marriage that destabilizes her position within patriarchy, for a while. However, she seeks to maintain this position as it gives her the agency to somewhat choose her husband. This is why Florinda remains inscribed within male discourse and chides her sister for being â€Å"curious in a discourse of love† despite being a maid â€Å"designed for a nun†. At the sam e time, she is degraded to the level of an object, a commodity, however precious, in a coercive structure of exchange.Because her self-esteem derives entirely from her status as a lady, she is able to measure her human value only by patriarchal standards. Her near rapes show this predicament. Men (Wilmore, Blunt, her own brother) seem to be chronically incapable of accepting the Florinda’s â€Å"No† as something which means â€Å"No†. On this level, the scenes are written with Behn’s male spectators in mind and accommodate the most complacent of responses to Florinda’s predicament. Then there is Hellena.The idea of Hellena being a female Rover is highly problematized as she is a woman and can be a Rover only in her words and not actual action. In fact all Behn attempts to do through her is minimize the difference between the status of the virgin and the whore as both Hellena and Angellica as advertise themselves in a way. According to the critic Na ncy Copeland, Hellena’s self-blazon in the first scene functions like Angellica’s pictures hung out of lure buyers of her body (â€Å"Angellica advertises herself publicly; Hellena’s self advertisement†¦ takes place within the privacy of her home†).This difference is eroded, however, when Hellena is blazoned at the beginning of Act V. Also, We learn that Hellena’s portion derives from her uncle, the old man who kept Angellica Bianca; thus the gold Willmore receives from the courtesan has the same source as that which he will earn by marrying the virgin. It is not only through Hellena and Angellica that similarity between virgin and whore develops. For instance, both Florinda and Lucetta also advertise themselves publicly.Florinda passes a jeweled miniature of herself (another portrait) to Belvile, who then circulates it among his companions. Lucetta, the cunning whore, parades herself provocatively before her propective new dupe: This is Stran ger, I know by his gazing; if he be brisk, he’I venture to follow me; and then if I understand my Trade, he’s mine. Also at night in the garden ‘in undress’, Florinda, carrying a little box of jewels-a double metonym for dowry and maidenhead, is also clearly reducing herself to an object of exchange.Thus while Angellica attempts to step out of the surface, material and exchange connotations of a painting, the virgins of the marriage plot are talking ‘business’ and learning the powers of deferral and unveiling. CONCLUSION A woman then, arguably, was nothing more than an object. She seemingly couldn’t escape being bought, sold, bargained for, fantasized about, fetishized and gazed at. However, contradictorily, even though her unbroken hymen (or â€Å"virgin heart†), â€Å"portion† (or â€Å"gold†) made her a valuable commodity-it made the man a commodity too as he sold himself for dowry or generally money and sex.Yet somehow the Restoration man remained in the subject position, in both the marriage market and the world of literary and theatrical production. This is what puts a woman in a no-win situation in both the private and the public sphere and Aphra Behn brings out this very discrepancy of norms and attitudes in her texts. Her texts expose the ugly bias in the celebration of new found sexual liberty in her time. Here she shows that the gender economics of the Restoration era are complicated but they definitely squarely position the woman as a commodity.Aphra Behn’s women may, to a limited extend, try to escape this fate she does not gloss over the fact that these women will fail to do so till the entire market is restructured. 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(Hons) in English, II Year (4th Semester) 2013.